The efforts of our project have gone toward the development of various researches related to contemporary Islam and the challenges it faces in Europe . In sociological terms the presence of Muslims in Europe is quite recent. But for all that, we can already see emerging the outlines of a penetration of Muslim culture into the European cultural space, and the signs of the great depth of this inherited cultural memory. This great cultural movement is the bearer of a certain ethic of expression which has its source in Islam itself. The particular object of our study will consist in analyzing the cultural stance taken by various Muslim artists, with an eye toward exhibiting the normative references to Islam that orient and sketch out the cultural choices of Muslims, as regards the contemporary situation, but also in terms of the future.

Our first step will be to analyze certain Coranic scriptural references. These texts focus, indeed in a juridical sense, upon the responsibility involved in artistic expression, as well as the on the variety of ways in which the texts have been reinterpreted to apply to a cultural context that is evolving.

A second stage will offer the reader an encounter, and even a demonstration of the responses of Muslim actors to the question of the cultural dimension of self-expression. In this sense the following analysis focuses on a specific case of Muslim cultural expression in Europe : British vocalist Sami Yusuf.

It is a fact that over the last three years a new star has appeared in the Muslim musical heavens. The icon in question is named Sami Yusuf[1]. Born in , this Londoner was born in July 1980 to a family already rich in artistic talent, musical and literary ability. His father is a talented composer, all-round musician, and poet. In 1998, Sami was already on his way, leaving the valuable school of his family’s talents after winning a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music in London [2]. Only five years later his first album, « Al-Mu’Allim » (The Teacher) appeared. This album consisted entirely of eight chants dedicated to the Prophet of Islam and to God. For the second album, which was released in 2005, Sami Yusuf chose an English title, « My Ummah » (My Community). Though this album was as simply produced and arranged as the first, it became a huge success.

It is certainly true that there are other artists who work with the same musical repertoire as Sami Yusuf. Each figures in his or her own way in the European cultural scene, and some have been part of it for many years. The folllowing names may be familiar : Imaan and Shaam[3] of Britain, Musa Mustafa from Syria, Raihan[4] and Qatrunada from Malaysia, Mohamed Lhsayan from Kuwait, Khaleel Muhammad from the Caribbean region, Zaïn Bikha and Yusuf Islam[5] (Cat Stevens), Adel Alkanderi from Bahrain, Miloud Zenasni, Khalid Belrhouzi and Ahmed Boukhater from France, and Al Bachair from Belgium…

In the present text we would like to display the reasons and the means by which a star in the music world, who is at the same time a product of the reality of European Islam[6], itself a cosmopolitan phenomenon, has been able to create such a sensation in that world, and on such a grand scale. The fact is that through Sami Yusuf’s musical productions a new form of planetarization of Muslim culture has come into existence. We have the impression that Sami Yusuf’s music comes in answer to desires and expectations that run through the entire Muslim world, at least as regards its upper middle class. He is tied in to a world that is faced with the difference between its recent history and the many great changes which are affecting it at the present time[7].

I.                    The creation of a global star.

Many commentaries on the Net, as well as newspaper reviews[8] from Turkish, British, French, and Egyptian papers are as one is praising the beauty of his voice. This explains, at least at first glance, the response from Yusuf’s fans. At any rate, his talent is universally known, and his style is popular. In the East, his albums fly off the shelves, his photographs are pinned to everyone’s wall, his video clips are omni-present on TV screens in the homes of middle class families in Alexandria, and in Dubai are downloaded in great numbers from various websites. There are many blogs dedicated to him, in many languages, and he seems constantly to be the subject of interviews, constantly appearing on talk shows, on every channel from the BBC [9] to the Iqra satellite channel. Though he began his career at the local level in the , Sami Yusuf today is an artist who symbolizes the emergence on the global stage of the contemporary Islamic cultural landscape. This success has also become reality in Europe and in North America . Sami Yusuf plays concerts regularly there, in large and medium size venues.

 Yusuf’s music and videos are today distributed in more than 12 Arab countries.[10] He is popular in , , and , but also in , , , – and even in places like the and . In 2003 he signed a contract with an Egyptian distributor. This won him the great favor of the Eastern public. This widespread popularity has enabled Sami Yusuf to  “brand” his image. When we see it coming from Cairo , the mother of the Islamic cultural world, we can easily understand the reasons for the current sensation. Already in the 19^th century, Cairo was a world leader in printing [11] and book production. In the 20^th century Cairo became a world leader in vinyl record album production. was the promotional center for the biggest stars in music: Oum Kaltsoum[12] (1904-1975), Farid El Atrache[13] (1917-1975), Abdelhalim Hafez[14] (1930-1977), Mohamed Abdelwahad[15] (1911-1991), etc. Even today, Cairo is a prime mover, generating many innovations, for example in televised series, alternative religious preaching, and innovative music radio programming.

At the end of his Cairo contract, Sami Yusuf signed a production and distribution agreement with trusted friends in . The company is a small one : Awakening[16], but it promises to expand rapidly. It already has outlets in the , in , and in the . It appears that Awakening Music is a dynamic formation, ready to move to the next level of sophistication as regards the tone and the nature of the music of Yusuf. Clips from earlier albums are promoted as a means of promoting the new album. Yusuf’s videoclips are marketed and distributed in the most classic way. All the available technologies of the information age are employed in order to make the work of the artist reach as many people as possible. In fact, the people involved in promoting Sami Yusuf are dedicated to the task. Everything connected with this effort has reached a new level of professionalism, from distribution to filming  the clips to the construction of the websites. This process has assisted, even accelerated the cultural diffusion of a repertoire of religious music that has been around for a long time. Sami has become an engine of the “creation of meaning”.  He has become a sort of global role model whose productions reach the masses. His charm and simplicity, and photogenic quality maximize his effect. The aspects of commercialism that have to do mainly with visual images are being used to promote Sami Yusuf ; internet word of mouth, satellite TV, and regular human word of mouth will do the rest.

II.                  A specific form of musical production

The production of Sami Yusuf’s music reflects an original synthesis between tradition[17] and the contemporary world.         

As regards languages, the singer uses English lyrics over Easternized melodies, but there is more. Arabic language lyrics are also used, and among the 14 tracks of My Ummah, Turkish and Urdu texts appear. In other words, the universality of Islam is given a concrete representation in this music, which establishes contact with several of the most widely spoken Muslim languages. The use of Arabic by a young Muslim living in the West has only been cause for rejoicing in the Muslim world. The preservation of the language of the Coran appears as a gift that knows no linguistic barriers. 

In the original versions, the music given as accompaniment for the songs of the repertoire Sami Yusuf records, was limited to providing a rhythmic background, mostly scored just for percussion. Readings are nearly unanimous, that this is the accompaniment mentioned in Islamic sources. So the use of other instruments gives rise to debates and even disputes[18]. Sami Yusuf, no doubt aware of the seriousness of the legalistic debates about the use of musical instruments (other than percussion) in Islam, goes as far as to produce two versions of the songs, one with accompanying instruments (such as strings) and one with percussion only. Faced with differences in the market, Sami adapts and caters to each. 

The accompanying images and pictures show the singer on stage, the image of a resolutely modern young man who nonetheless is able to display the signs of piety. Sami’s presence is positive, and testifies to the presence of God in all actions. He is an exemplary young person. This is visible in his attitude toward his mother, whom he kisses respectfully. He gives aid to suffering people – he reaches out to blind people, for example, and engages in get-togethers with children, teaching them the forms of prayer. This young and respectful artist is seen to live in a modern apartment, driving a four-wheel-drive vehicle, sometimes the subject of news reports, sometimes acting as the star employee of a London business. He smiles at the world and his smile is returned.

 The texts which give the essence of these albums of chants come from Islamic sources. The vocabulary and the themes of the songs performed by Sami Yusuf are based on very familiar formulations. Some are calls to prayer, some are songs of praise, admonitions, etc. The artist thus cooperates in the formation of an overall Islamic image marked by the theme of gathering together the patrimony, the inheritance of Islam. The values held in common throughout Islam as represented in the songs are central ones, such as the love of God and of his messenger, the brotherhood of humanity and of Muslim identity, respect, solidarity, unity… On the first album, four songs were devoted to the subject of the Prophet Muhammad. Four other songs focus on God as a creator, or as the center of meditation…  The 2005 album is longer and more varied. Sami Yusuf includes a celebratory song, several songs about the Muslim community, as well as a return to the theme of the Prophet. There is a song for mothers in two versions, Arabic and Turkish. Other songs continue to sound the themes of freedom, prayer, and God.  

 All these songs are part of the Nasheed tradition[19]. The word literally means ode, song, or hymn. This is an accepted Islamic tradition [20]that bases itself on the respect for norms, decorum in language, a certain understatement regarding ultimate meaning, and an elevated, dignified content. This is an artistic style which, although blatantly presented as a current for today, sets itself off from other popular musical culture styles rather than creating one of its own. The Nasheed tradition is well-known, but originality would not have been thought to be its long suit. The texts are all classically simple and rarely depart from the familiar themes. This repertoire poses a problem for the artist who does not want to repeat himself, but the challenge is to create new forms for the repertoire to inhabit. The content, the message of the Nasheed is unambiguous. It is intended to entertain, but without separating itself from the faith. It is in a sense addressed to the faithful, and has no intrinsic intention to attract new listeners. It has known periods of greater and lesser popularity, but over this history it has become more complex. It has generated its own categories and types. One branch concentrates on the spiritual, the mystical, and on the praises of the prophets. Another is adapted to special occasions and celebrations. One branch sings of militant Islam within certain organizations, expressing a claim to freedom and justice, even a call to resistance (e.g., in Palestine or ), etc. For members of the younger generation these branches merge. Sami Yusuf participates in a general movement of renewal of the Nasheed tradition and of all the artistic forms of the Muslim world.

Already during the lifetime of the Prophet Islam reached out to its environing musical culture. Beauty is considered as a component of spirituality. In Islamic history, this question has always been attended by controversy, in the course of a reflection upon the limits of music in Islam. Some scholars would prohibit it and some would permit it[21]. Some would place very specific conditions on its use. Now that Islam has expanded to three continents, its expressions get involved with the aesthetic sensibilities of the cultures and peoples it encounters [22]. An Islamic musical art of diverse form thus emerges [23]. This will be diffused through the philanthropy of the courts of various Caliphates[24] as well as through the activities of mystical brotherhoods [25]. Al Farabi with his treatise on music in the tenth century[26], which was followed by that of  Ibn Hazm and many others since [27], shows that Islam was engaged in the search for the principles of a musicology [28] that would be specific to Islamic civilization [29]. This rationalization of musical imagery in general was part of the emergence[30] of a long period of cultural growth and diffusion that would extend as far as influencing the style of troubadours[31]. But a period of retrenchment followed and creativity languished. This regressive time favored transmission of a certain technique from master to disciple. The Muslim world faced an identity crisis caused by Western expansion throughout the 18^th and 19^th centuries, which brought semi-sterility in its train. A reform of Arabic music would take place at the beginning of the 20^th century[32] but would center around themes of individuality[33] and a reform of techniques of musical composition.[34] The contemporary period is characterized by attempts to reappropriate this heritage, and to renew relations with genres of popular music, including celebration and entertainment. On the other hand, at a time of cultural cross-pollination, some artists are adapting in the direction of new genres. In Europe we see attempts to present rap music in Islamic dress, and also a “halal music” that incorporates new forms of the Nasheed. Its themes have become current again, and in artistic terms they are being reworked to include material from contemporary forms of artistically accomplished music. Sami Yusuf is situated at the intersection of all these movements.

III.               Yusuf ‘s artistic production and its context

The success of this music is related to the heightened attention paid to the changes the contemporary Muslim world is undergoing. Since the 18^th and 19^th centuries its populations have been confronted with very different systems, often imposed from outside. Cultural understanding is pulled in different directions, between a return to traditions, struggles for reform, and acculturation to Western culture. After political independence, the political development of Islam produced Arab nationalism – today outmoded, almost a museum piece. Since the 1970’s the wave of political Islamism, a force for change, has encountered obstacles. It shares the stage with conservative Muslim movements that have been mostly unable to respond to the expectations and desires of their populations. But a new face for Islam is being superimposed over the feeling of weariness and apathy those obstacles eventually produced. This new image is at home in the media glare and on the local street. Its discourse is a refreshing one, responsive to the expectations of various sectors of the population, and not afraid to express itself with regard to spiritual questions. It is balanced between unenthusiastic traditionalism and foreign modernism. Its success has been astonishing. Its most characteristic faces are these : ‘Amr Khalid, the young star newscaster from Cairo, actresses who give up their stage names and work under their real identities[35], theme-based Islamic programming[36], a new style in newscasting[37], which sets a fashion tone that allows some coquetry but is basically practical. But this media movement also allows scholars to be heard directly, explaining events to the viewing audience. One important show has been that of Cheikh Al Qardaoui, appearing weekly on Aljazeera[38]. Singing groups appear, similar to those of Christian “praise music”… His speeches to the Muslim world have called all Muslims to an awakening at the level of an entire civilization, beginning with individuals. The example of German and Japanese recovery after World War II has been a term of comparison. This awakening is intended to be available to everyone.

Patrick Haenni[39] has spoken of a certain enrichment of this discourse stemming from principles of good management. Works of economics in the service of an Islamic vision connect the language of the culture of business with a call to the rebuilding of human beings. It is possible to speak of excellence, of development, of seriousness. A new generation is emerging. It is dusting off the past inherited from its elders in order to conceive a project that is adapted to the expectations of the present. These aspects of the current discourse reflect what is going on in the clips of Sami Yusuf. He expresses in images what others are proposing in words. These images of the new popular face of Islam are responsive to present realities and plunge their roots into the expectations of daily life. Gone are the complexes people suffered concerning accumulated wealth, tradition, or modernity. Islam is in phase, issuing a call to the middle and upper classes, but still addressing itself to the plight of the disadvantaged. On the side of the individualized bourgeois class, an ethical orientation is recommended, through examples such as wealthy and fortunate people who give back to the community and put themselves at the service of others. This is a new face for Islam, without so much political baggage, and without the immediate aim of transforming itself into a social movement. This Islam does not scare people (at least, not yet).

 This context makes sense of the amazing global success of the music we have been considering. But it is worth specifying its ingredients still further.

 A mirror-game with identity

No music group or singer succeeds without a group of fans who recognize the quality and the virtuosity of the artist. But the fan may also recognize himself or herself via the universe of the artist. Such a mirror-recognizance is part of an imaginary projection into the myth created around the artist, all of which is mediated by texts, images and photos, clips, and live concerts. 

No one could now question Sami Yusuf’s ability at the highest artistic level, but he has also developed a persona to go with his music that gives fans the opportunity of identifying with him. Edgar Morin[40] theorized that this kind of de-centering of the personality in favor of the world of an other could alter one’s representations of real life, thus affecting behavior in reality.

 The image of the Muslim and the ideal social bond

 The young singer smiled upon by all, and who kisses his mother’s hand before departing for the mosque in his convertible, can constitute a model. It can also change the behavior of certain people toward their parents, an important thing in a Muslim universe in which one’s relation with one’s parents takes up a great deal of space in one’s life. The Yusuf videoclips carry a message : you should take care of what you are given so you yourself can give. Within that context, well-being and even a certain luxury are not fustigated.

But this model, as offered, also includes propositions for the reconstruction and re-creation of the social bond between persons. This is not only because the star himself creates social ties[41] ; it takes place through the creation of a body of shared references among the group. The group shares the vision of the message offered by the artist. It is a vision of respect, of balance, of success, of prayer… One feels this fairly explicitly in reviewing testimonials from Belgian Muslim couples. We have collected several in the last few weeks, and we have also conducted interviews with Muslim bookstores and record shops that sell Yusuf’s albums. One mother told us that she hoped her children would want to imitate Sami Yusuf. A couple in their thirties looked on him as a sort of advance, a long-awaited combination of taste and ethical standards. This couple had a long experience of artistic movements, and their general sense that their particular sensibilities were no longer represented acknowledged Sami Yusuf as an exception. One young woman saw him as an ideal husband, believing him to be as faithful to his principles as he is fastidious as regards his appearance. A young married woman looked on him as a model son and imagined how proud his parents must be. Bookstores and record stores note his rising sales, and their clients are all equally fascinated by his dexterity. The power of imagination can itself be a vector for social change. This is expressed in the religious texts sung by Sami Yusuf, but also by the way he lives his life. Everyone can agree on this. This is what holds the society or community together. That is probably why Yusuf’s second album (released in 2005) was titled “My Ummah”. The title of the first album, “Al-Muallim”, referred to the Prophet of Islam, and forms perhaps the element that holds together all the rest. On one hand we have the model, presented by Sami Yusuf. On the other, we have people who aspire to resemble this model. 

 The singer of an image of Islam in relation to the vicissitudes of globalization

 Sami Yusuf also makes use of a globalized Muslim imagery, as seen through the relation to the rest of the world. His clips have become therapeutic instruments in which discourse heals the wounds caused by a tarnished image of Islam. In this troubled period of the post-September 11th world, the Muslim world suffers guilt by association with the globalization of radical violence, and suffers the resultant stigmatization from other peoples in the world. Here Sami Yusuf appear as the representative of a different image. He represents a different dream, one rooted in the beliefs of a Muslim society that has been Westernized and modernized. A 26-year-old man has become the icon of a renaissance, a model of reform. From to , from to , voices of the same type are emerging. They are the representatives of a generation capable of expressing Islam from the inside, casting off outmoded images, making themselves heard. Sami Yusuf is among the most visible and best promoted of the icons of the Muslim world.

Conférence tenue par l'auteur lors d'un colloque soutenu par ESF au Danemark, mai 2006